Trees such as western yellow pine, red cedar, juniper, cottonwoods and willows are considered sacred, living beings, symbolic of life. Willows provide saplings for the construction of the sweat lodge, and red willow composes the tobacco mix smoked during ceremony. Cottonwood serves as the sacred pole during the sun dance. Black Elk provided a detailed account of why the cottonwood is considered sacred:
"I think it would be good to explain to you here why we consider the cottonwood tree to be so very sacred. I might mention first, that long ago it was the cottonwood who taught us how to make our tipis, for the leaf of the tree is an exact pattern of the tipi, and this we learned when some of our old men were watching little children making play houses from these leaves. […] Another reason why we choose the cottonwood tree to be at the center of our [sun dance] lodge is that the Great Spirit has shown to us that, if you cut an upper limb of this tree crosswise, there you will see in the grain a perfect five pointed star, which, to us, represents the presence of the Great Spirit. Also perhaps you have noticed that even in the very lightest breeze you can hear the voice of the cottonwood tree; this we understand is its prayer to the Great Spirit, for not only men, but all things and all beings pray to Him continually in differing ways" (Brown 1953: 74-75).1
The cedar is particularly pleasing to Wakinyan. But the aroma of sage and sweetgrass are also pleasing to the spirits and these three plants are used frequently during ritual. Sage in particular is thought to repel malevolent forces. Sage is favoured not only because the White Buffalo Calf Woman had decreed it so, but because the Lakota had observed that the buffalo often sought sage out and rolled about in it. Of sage, Standing Bear wrote:
"Wild sage, which was a symbol of cleanliness and purity, was a necessary part of every sacred ceremony. It was brought to the Lakotas in a vision, and the Sun Dancers wrapped it around their ankles and wrists. Small sprigs of it were tied to the eagle-bone whistles next to the mouthpiece, and when the dancers began to feel thirst they chewed a bit of it. those who went into the sweat-lodge either because of illness or for purification rubbed their bodies with this sweet-smelling shrub, and a tea brewed from its leaves relieved headache and indigestion. Every altar was adorned with it […]" (1933: 200- 201).2
Of course, many plants were sacred for their medicinal values. Lone Man:
"[The medicine man told me] that all herbs and roots are made for the benefit of animals or man. Some herbs and roots vary in color according to the season of the year, and others do not. All are carefully tested, and if one is found to be a cure for a certain disease, it should be regarded as a gift from Wakan Tanka, and intended especially as a remedy for that disease. It should be reverenced, and this reverence should be closely observed, as without it the herb will have no effect" (Densmore 1918: 216).3
Sometimes a herb had direct medicinal value through its ingestion, other times a herb's curative value lay simply in its presence.
One of Densmore's research participants, Eagle-Shield, used a variety of herbs for healing. He used yarrow (Archillea lanulosa Nutt.) - taopi pezuta - to cure the wounded. The herb was dried and the patient was required to chew it. He used loco weed (Astragalus carolinianus L.) - locepisni pezihuta - to cure loss of appetite. An inhalation of dried, smoking Colorado sage (Artemisia frigida Willd.) - nasula yazanpi ipiya - was taken for headaches. A tea infusion of loco weed (Astragalus sp.) - cante yazanpi icuwa - was taken for "heart trouble or pain in the stomach" (1918: 260). Broken bones were treated with Allionia nyctaginea Michx., or huhuwehanhan pezuta in Lakota, mixed with grease and applied to the flesh above fractures. Kidney ailments were treated with a decoction of dried wild lettuce (Lactuca pulchella DC) - azuntka yazanpi onpiyapi. Wild licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota Nutt.) was also used to treat sickness. Internal and external hemorrhages were remedied by the cone flower (Ratibida columnaris Sims Don.) or winawazi hutkan in Lakota, along with general pain and ear ache. Most of the above medicines had been imparted in dreams to Eagle Shield by the bear, and the remedies were associated with adults (Ibid.: 254-265).
Eagle Shield received his remedies for children from the badger:
"A man appeared to me in a dream, showed me a plant, and said, 'My friend, remember this plant well. Be sure to get the right one, as this is good.' It was a badger, who appeared to me in the form of a man and said this. It was the first time that the badger came to me, but afterward he brought me other herbs. […] When the badger is alive he eats this herb. Whatever herb the badger introduces is especially good" (Ibid.: 266).
The badger revealed to him the properties that horseweed (Leptilon canadense L.) had for treating bowel pain and diarrhea, as a decoction. A decoction of lamb's-quarters (Chenopodium album L.) was drunk in cases of childhood blood dysentery. Wild columbine (Aquilegia canadensis L.) was also a treatment for diarrhea. Dock (Rumex sp.) was steeped in water and either taken internally or rubbed over a child's body to cure fever and headache (Ibid.: 266-267).
The administering of a particular medicine would be accompanied by songs specific to it. Densmore calls these "medicine songs" (Ibid.: 267). Claws, such as that of a bear, would often be pressed into a patient's flesh to facilitate entry of medicine (Ibid.).
Another medicine man, who had received his knowledge from the bear also, was Bear-with-White-Paw. He furnished Densmore with more information regarding herbal treatments. He used the seeds of western wallflower (Cheirinia aspera DC Britton) to treat stomach and bowel cramps. The root of alum root (Heuchera hispida Pursh) was a powerful astringent and used to cure chronic diarrhea. Puccoon (Lithospermum linearifolium Goldie) treated hemorrhages from the lungs. The root of Echinacea angustifolia DC remedied toothache, pain in the bowels, and tonsillitis. A tea of the blossoms of horsemint (Monarda fistulosa L.) was used to treat fever and cold. Grated root of umbrellawort (Allionia nyctaginea Michx.) was moistened and applied in the treatment of broken bones (Ibid.: 269-270).
Jaw furnished Densmore with a lichen known as Parmelia sp. He told her it was used in the treatment of rheumatism. He used a decoction of daisy (Erigeron pumilus Nutt.) for rheumatism, lameness and stomach disorders (Ibid.: 270, 389).
The medicine men Densmore interviewed were all keen to point out that it was Wakantanka and not themselves who had cured patients (Ibid.: 275).
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